<div class="" data-article-body="true"><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words">On Feb. 22, 2020, “<a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-51602655" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:Mad” Mike Hughes;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">Mad” Mike Hughes</a> towed a homemade rocket to the Mojave Desert and launched himself into the sky. His goal? To view the flatness of the Earth from space. This was his third attempt, and tragically it was fatal. Hughes crashed shortly after takeoff and died.</p><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words">Hughes’ nickname – Mad Mike – might strike you as apt. Is it not crazy to risk your life fighting for a theory that was disproven in <a href="https://www.aps.org/apsnews/2006/06/eratosthenes-measures-earth" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:ancient Greece;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">ancient Greece</a>?</p><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words">But Hughes’ conviction, though striking, is not unique. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X09991555" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:Across all recorded cultures;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">Across all recorded cultures</a>, people have held strong beliefs that seemed to lack evidence in their favor – one might refer to them as “extraordinary beliefs.”</p><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words">For <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=vQq3StQAAAAJ&amp;hl=en&amp;oi=ao" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:evolutionary anthropologists like me;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">evolutionary anthropologists like me</a>, the ubiquity of these kinds of beliefs is a puzzle. Human brains evolved to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X12000477" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:form accurate models of the world;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">form accurate models of the world</a>. Most of the time, we do a pretty good job. So why do people also often adopt and develop beliefs that lack strong supporting evidence?</p><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words">In a new review in the journal Trends in Cognitive Sciences, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2025.11.002" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:I propose a simple answer;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">I propose a simple answer</a>. People come to believe in flat Earth, spirits and microchipped vaccines for the same reasons they come to believe in anything else. Their experiences lead them to think those beliefs are true.</p><h2 class="mb-4 text-xl font-bold md:text-2xl">Theories of extraordinary belief</h2><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words">Most social scientists have taken a different view on this subject. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/13869795.2017.1287294" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:Supernatural beliefs;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">Supernatural beliefs</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691618774270" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:conspiracy theories;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">conspiracy theories</a> and <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12441" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:pseudoscience;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">pseudoscience</a> have struck researchers as totally impervious to contrary evidence. Consequently, they have assumed that experience is not relevant to the formation of those beliefs. Instead, they’ve focused on two other explanatory factors.</p><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words">The first common explanation is cognitive biases. Many psychologists argue that humans possess mental shortcuts for reasoning about how the world works. For instance, people are quite prone to seeing <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(99)01419-9" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:intentions and intelligence;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">intentions and intelligence</a> behind random events. A bias of this kind might explain why people often believe that deities control phenomena such as weather or illness.</p><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words">The second factor is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2009.03.005" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:social dynamics;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">social dynamics</a>: People adopt certain beliefs not because they’re sure that they’re true but because other people hold those beliefs, or they want to signal something about themselves to others. For example, some conspiracy theorists may adopt strange beliefs because those <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-33305-w" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:beliefs come with a community;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">beliefs come with a community</a> of loyal and supportive co-believers.</p><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words">Both of these approaches can partly explain how people come to hold extraordinary beliefs. But they discount three ways that experience, in tandem with the other two factors, can shape extraordinary beliefs.</p><figure class="relative mb-4"><div class="relative"><img alt="vast grassy landscape with blue sky and white clouds" loading="lazy" width="960" height="960" decoding="async" data-nimg="1" class="rounded-lg" style="color:transparent" src="https://s.yimg.com/ny/api/res/1.2/.IOBBwjwYnKFHKMa9xn1fQ--/YXBwaWQ9aGlnaGxhbmRlcjt3PTk2MDtoPTk2MDtjZj13ZWJw/https://media.zenfs.com/en/the_conversation_us_articles_815/784068e6efd36010eb844e38d053b1ff"><button aria-label="View larger image" class="group absolute bottom-3 right-3 size-10 md:size-[50px] lg:inset-0 lg:size-full lg:bg-transparent" data-ylk="elm:expand;itc:1;sec:image-lightbox;slk:lightbox-open;"><span class="absolute bottom-0 right-0 rounded-full bg-white p-3 opacity-100 shadow-elevation-3 transition-opacity duration-300 group-hover:block group-hover:opacity-100 md:p-[17px] lg:bottom-6 lg:right-6 lg:bg-white/90 lg:p-5 lg:opacity-0 lg:shadow-none"><svg viewbox="0 0 22 22" aria-hidden="true" class="size-4 lg:size-6" width="22" height="22"><path d="M12.372.92c0-.506.41-.916.915-.916L21 0l-.004 7.712a.917.917 0 0 1-1.832 0V3.183l-6.827 6.828-1.349-1.348 6.828-6.828h-4.529a.915.915 0 0 1-.915-.915M1.835 17.816l6.828-6.828 1.349 1.349-6.829 6.827h4.529a.915.915 0 0 1 0 1.831L0 21l.004-7.713a.916.916 0 0 1 1.831 0z"></path></svg></span></button><dialog aria-label="Modal Dialog" aria-modal="true" class="fixed inset-0 z-4 size-full max-h-none max-w-none bg-white hidden"></dialog></div><figcaption class="relative text-sm mt-1 pr-2.5"><div style="max-height:none;overflow:visible">Science says one thing, but your eyes tell you the Earth looks pretty darn flat. <a href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/green-grass-field-royalty-free-image/184615693" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:sharply_done/E+ via Getty Images;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">sharply_done/E+ via Getty Images</a></div></figcaption></figure><h2 class="mb-4 text-xl font-bold md:text-2xl">1. Experience as a filter</h2><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words">First, I propose that experience can act as a filter. It determines which extraordinary beliefs can successfully spread throughout a population.</p><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words">Take the flat Earth theory as an example. We know with absolute certainty that it’s false, but it’s no more or less wrong than a theory that the Earth is shaped like a cone. So what makes flat Earth so much more successful than this equally incorrect alternative?</p><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words">The answer is as obvious as it seems – the Earth looks flat when you’re standing on it, not cone-shaped. Visual evidence favors one extraordinary belief over the others. Of course, scientific evidence clearly shows that the Earth is round; but it’s not surprising that some people prefer to trust what their eyes are telling them.</p><h2 class="mb-4 text-xl font-bold md:text-2xl">2. Experience as a spark</h2><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words">My second argument is that experience acts as a spark for extraordinary beliefs. Strange experiences, such as auditory hallucinations, are difficult to explain and understand. So people do their best to explain them – and in doing so, they come up with beliefs that seem fittingly strange.</p><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words">For this pathway, <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-lies-behind-ghosts-demons-and-aliens-according-to-sleep-researchers-93534" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:sleep paralysis is a good case study;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">sleep paralysis is a good case study</a>. <a href="https://theconversation.com/curious-kids-why-are-some-people-affected-by-sleep-paralysis-121125" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:Sleep paralysis;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">Sleep paralysis</a> happens in the space between sleeping and waking – you feel like you’re awake, but you can’t move or speak. It’s terrifying and quite <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2011.01.007" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:common;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">common</a>. And interestingly, sufferers usually feel like there’s a <a href="https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025373412722" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:threatening agent;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">threatening agent</a> sitting on their chest.</p><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words">As a scientist, I interpret sleep paralysis as the result of neural confusion. But it’s not difficult to picture how someone without a scientific background – that is, nearly every human being in history – might interpret the experience as <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01294" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:evidence of supernatural beings;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">evidence of supernatural beings</a>.</p><h2 class="mb-4 text-xl font-bold md:text-2xl">3. Experience as a tool</h2><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words">To me, the third potential route to extraordinary beliefs is especially intriguing. In many cases, people don’t just develop extraordinary beliefs; they develop immersive practices that make those beliefs feel true.</p><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words">For instance, imagine that you’re a farmer living in the highlands of Lesotho in southern Africa, where I conduct ethnographic fieldwork. You suffer a series of miscarriages, and you want to know why. So you go to a traditional healer – she tells you that you can learn the answer from your ancestors by drinking a <a href="https://www.sahumanities.org/index.php/sah/article/view/369" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:hallucinogenic brew;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">hallucinogenic brew</a>. You drink the brew. Soon after, you begin to see spirits; they speak to you and explain your misfortune.</p><figure class="relative mb-4"><div class="relative"><img alt="Shaman in colorful outfit and necklaces ladles from a clay pot" loading="lazy" width="960" height="640" decoding="async" data-nimg="1" class="rounded-lg" style="color:transparent" src="https://s.yimg.com/ny/api/res/1.2/OyzmrqDU4aHMBA6tQHbPOQ--/YXBwaWQ9aGlnaGxhbmRlcjt3PTk2MDtoPTY0MDtjZj13ZWJw/https://media.zenfs.com/en/the_conversation_us_articles_815/41c5fb5f59a2a1c79e3e22ac246fa62c"><button aria-label="View larger image" class="group absolute bottom-3 right-3 size-10 md:size-[50px] lg:inset-0 lg:size-full lg:bg-transparent" data-ylk="elm:expand;itc:1;sec:image-lightbox;slk:lightbox-open;"><span class="absolute bottom-0 right-0 rounded-full bg-white p-3 opacity-100 shadow-elevation-3 transition-opacity duration-300 group-hover:block group-hover:opacity-100 md:p-[17px] lg:bottom-6 lg:right-6 lg:bg-white/90 lg:p-5 lg:opacity-0 lg:shadow-none"><svg viewbox="0 0 22 22" aria-hidden="true" class="size-4 lg:size-6" width="22" height="22"><path d="M12.372.92c0-.506.41-.916.915-.916L21 0l-.004 7.712a.917.917 0 0 1-1.832 0V3.183l-6.827 6.828-1.349-1.348 6.828-6.828h-4.529a.915.915 0 0 1-.915-.915M1.835 17.816l6.828-6.828 1.349 1.349-6.829 6.827h4.529a.915.915 0 0 1 0 1.831L0 21l.004-7.713a.916.916 0 0 1 1.831 0z"></path></svg></span></button><dialog aria-label="Modal Dialog" aria-modal="true" class="fixed inset-0 z-4 size-full max-h-none max-w-none bg-white hidden"></dialog></div><figcaption class="relative text-sm mt-1 pr-2.5"><div style="max-height:none;overflow:visible">A shaman might administer a psychoactive substance that affects how you experience the world around you. <a href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/colombian-shaman-claudino-perez-serves-yage-or-ayahuasca-news-photo/2147842113" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:Luis Acosta/AFP via Getty Images;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">Luis Acosta/AFP via Getty Images</a></div></figcaption></figure><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words">Clearly, an experience like this one might reinforce your belief in the existence of spirits. Such immersive practices – such as <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.70029" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:prayer;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">prayer</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/2153599X.2022.2118360" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:ritualistic dance;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">ritualistic dance</a> and the <a href="https://theconversation.com/ayahuasca-the-shamanic-brew-that-produces-out-of-body-experiences-52836" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:religious use of psychoactive substances;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">religious use of psychoactive substances</a> – create evidence that makes the associated beliefs feel true.</p><h2 class="mb-4 text-xl font-bold md:text-2xl">What’s next?</h2><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words">Extraordinary beliefs are not inherently good or bad. In particular, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2018.11.006" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:religious beliefs;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">religious beliefs</a> provide meaning, security and a sense of community for billions of people.</p><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words">But some extraordinary beliefs are sources of serious concern: Misinformation about <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7721433/" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:science;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">science</a> and <a href="https://jd.journals.publicknowledgeproject.org/index.php/jd/article/view/437" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:politics;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">politics</a> is rampant and immensely dangerous. By recognizing how those beliefs are shaped by experience, researchers can find better ways to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03344-2" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:combat their spread;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">combat their spread</a>.</p><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words">Just as importantly, though, my suggested perspective might encourage more compassion and kinship toward people who hold beliefs that seem very different from yours. They are not “mad” or insincere. Like any other human being, they think the evidence is on their side.</p><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words"><em>This article is republished from <a href="http://theconversation.com/us?utm_source=Yahoo&amp;utm_medium=related-link&amp;utm_campaign=related-link-0&amp;utm_content=article-271145" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:The Conversation;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">The Conversation</a>, a nonprofit, independent news organization bringing you facts and trustworthy analysis to help you make sense of our complex world. It was written by: <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/eli-elster-2265142?utm_source=Yahoo&amp;utm_medium=related-link&amp;utm_campaign=byline-link&amp;utm_content=article-271145" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:Eli Elster;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">Eli Elster</a>, <em><a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-california-davis-1312?utm_source=Yahoo&amp;utm_medium=related-link&amp;utm_campaign=byline-link&amp;utm_content=article-271145" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:University of California, Davis;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">University of California, Davis</a></em> </em></p><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words"><strong>Read more:</strong><br></p><ul class="mb-4"><li class="ml-4 list-disc"><div class=""><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words"><a href="http://theconversation.com/why-the-chemtrail-conspiracy-theory-lingers-and-grows-and-why-tucker-carlson-is-talking-about-it-269770?utm_source=Yahoo&amp;utm_medium=related-link&amp;utm_campaign=related-link0&amp;utm_content=article-271145" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:Why the chemtrail conspiracy theory lingers and grows – and why Tucker Carlson is talking about it;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">Why the chemtrail conspiracy theory lingers and grows – and why Tucker Carlson is talking about it</a></p></div></li><li class="ml-4 list-disc"><div class=""><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words"><a href="http://theconversation.com/why-does-everything-look-flat-even-though-the-earth-is-round-229582?utm_source=Yahoo&amp;utm_medium=related-link&amp;utm_campaign=related-link1&amp;utm_content=article-271145" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:Why does everything look flat even though the Earth is round?;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">Why does everything look flat even though the Earth is round?</a></p></div></li><li class="ml-4 list-disc"><div class=""><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words"><a href="http://theconversation.com/cognitive-biases-and-brain-biology-help-explain-why-facts-dont-change-minds-186530?utm_source=Yahoo&amp;utm_medium=related-link&amp;utm_campaign=related-link2&amp;utm_content=article-271145" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank" data-ylk="slk:Cognitive biases and brain biology help explain why facts don’t change minds;elm:context_link;itc:0;sec:content-canvas" class="link ">Cognitive biases and brain biology help explain why facts don’t change minds</a></p></div></li></ul><p class="mb-4 text-lg md:leading-8 break-words"><em><span>Eli Elster does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></em></p></div>

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